Modernist Cuisine, Vol 1, p122 (includes my bold):
A separate family of parasitic worms, known as nematodes or anisakids,
includes species such as Anisakis simplex and Pseudoterranova
decipiens (which is also listed under the genus Terranova or
Phocanema). These worms follow a life cycle that resembles that of trichinae but in a marine environment.
Raw fish poses the biggest risk
of infection because cooking fish to an internal temperature of 60 °C
/ 140 °F or more for at least one minute kills the worms. Several food
safety guides assert that 15 seconds at an interior temperature of 63
°C / 145 °F will also do the trick. Those temperatures, however, are
high enough to overcook the fish, at least to many people’s taste.
Not
surprisingly, sushi-loving Japan is the epicenter of foodborne
anisakid infections, also known as anisakiasis. Tokyo alone tallies
about 1,000 cases annually, most of which are from home-prepared sushi
and sashimi. Only rarely are sushi bars with professional sushi chefs
implicated. The U.S. reports fewer than 10 cases a year.
Anisakid
infection occurs more frequently in certain fish species that
fishermen catch near the shore, such as salmon, mackerel, squid,
herring, anchovies, and rockfish, than it does in other species.
Coastal fish are more likely to eat infected copepods that regenerate
in seals and other marine mammals. Farmed salmon do not eat copepods
and are therefore generally anisakid-free, as are wild tuna and other
deep-ocean species.
Wild salmon, however, are especially prone to
infection. In 1994, for instance, an FDA study found anisakids in 10%
of raw salmon samples that were obtained from 32 sushi bars in the
Seattle area. Despite this alarming statistic, human anisakiasis cases
are still relatively rare because most ingested larvae die or pass
harmlessly through the intestinal tract.
The technique traditionally
used by chefs to detect worms requires them to hold fish fillets up to
a light and inspect them visually, a procedure called candling. Master
sushi chefs say they can feel the worms with their fingers. And
although some chefs can indeed find a few worms through candling or
handling, studies suggest that others may be easily missed, especially
in salmon or mackerel. No matter how experienced the sushi master,
then, neither method is fully reliable.
Freezing kills anisakids, and
in this way the food industry ensures that worms pose no health risk
in fish that is served raw. For commercial retailers, the FDA
recommends freezing and storing the fish in a blast freezer for seven
days at −20°C/−4°F, or for 15hours at −35°C/−31°F. Most sushi is, in
fact, frozen before it is served; the 1994 FDA study found that all
but one of the anisakid worms spotted in the Seattle sushi were dead
or dying—casualties of the freezing process. If done improperly,
however, freezing can negatively affect the taste and texture of the
fish.
Modernist Cuisine, Vol 1, p123-124 (moreso Asia, but for posterity it is worth mentioning):
[ … ] species of liver fluke are endemic to Asia and Eastern Europe,
where researchers have linked them to eating raw or undercooked
freshwater fish.
Researchers have tied many infections, mostly in Asia, to eating raw,
pickled, or poorly cooked freshwater crabs and crawfish (especially
Chinese “drunken crabs”) that are contaminated with lung flukes,
another major fluke group comprising eight known species. These
animals produce a serious human disease called paragonimiasis, in
which immature worms infect the lungs and encapsulate themselves in
protective cysts, where they can remain for decades.
A table on freezing times by FDA:
So, to kill parasites, a blast freezer is the way to go.
Afterwards, we need to cook sous vide to get rid of nasty bacteria.
This is my sous vide bible: http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html
Cook-hold sous vide (hold the temperature and serve):
For cook-hold sous vide, the main pathogens of interest are the Salmonella species and the pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli. There are, of course, many other food pathogens but these two species are relatively heat resistant and require very few active bacteria (measured in colony forming units, CFU, per gram) to make you sick. Since you’re unlikely to know how contaminated your food is or how many of these bacteria your (or your guests) immune system can handle, most experts recommend a 6.5 to 7 decimal reductions of all Salmonella species and a 5 decimal reduction of pathogenic E. coli.
Cook-chill sous vide (chill after cooking for later re-heating and serving):
For cook-chill sous vide, Listeria monocytogenes and the spore forming pathogenic bacteria are our pathogens of interest. That’s because Listeria is the most heat resistant non-spore forming pathogen and can grow at refrigerator temperatures (Nyati, 2000b; Rybka-Rodgers, 2001), but appears to require more bacteria to make you sick than Salmonella or E. coli. Most experts recommend a 6 decimal reduction in Listeria if you don’t know the contamination level of your food.
While keeping your food sealed in plastic pouches prevents recontamination after cooking, spores of Clostridium botulinum, C. perfringens, and B. cereus can all survive the mild heat treatment of pasteurization. Therefore, after rapid chilling, the food must either be frozen or held at
- below 36.5°F (2.5°C) for up to 90 days,
- below 38°F (3.3°C) for less than 31 days,
- below 41°F (5°C) for less than 10 days,
- or below 44.5°F (7°C) for less than 5 days
to prevent spores of non-proteolytic C. botulinum from outgrowing and producing deadly neurotoxin (Gould, 1999; Peck, 1997).
We all consume small amounts of harmful bacteria that passes through our system unbeknownst to us, so we're talking about cooking to safe levels.
There is an easy table of data for this, and it is based upon the thickness of the items you are cooking sous vide. Please keep in mind, cylindrical items will cook faster in sous vide than their relatively box-shaped counterparts (a roulade, for instance, vs. a 1" thick steak.)
Also, depending on the meat, you will want to cook it to a different temperature to cull those particular bacteria (fish vs. chicken vs. beef)
There are several tables of data:
http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html#Fish_and_Shellfish
Pasteurization Time for Lean Fish
(starting at 41°F / 5°C and put in a 131–140°F / 55–60°C water bath)
55°C 56°C 57°C 58°C 59°C 60°C
Thickness 131°F 133°F 134.5°F 136.5°F 138°F 140°F
5 mm 2½ hr 1¾ hr 1¼ hr 50 min 35 min 30 min
10 mm 2¾ hr 2 hr 1½ hr 60 min 45 min 35 min
15 mm 2¾ hr 2 hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 55 min 50 min
20 mm 3 hr 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 60 min
25 mm 3¼ hr 2½ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr
30 mm 3¾ hr 3 hr 2½ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr
35 mm 4 hr 3¼ hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr
40 mm 4½ hr 3¾ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr
45 mm 4¾ hr 4 hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr
50 mm 5¼ hr 4½ hr 4 hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr
55 mm 5¾ hr 5 hr 4½ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr
60 mm 6¼ hr 5½ hr 5 hr 4½ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr
65 mm 7 hr 6 hr 5½ hr 5 hr 4½ hr 4¼ hr
70 mm 7½ hr 6¾ hr 6 hr 5½ hr 5 hr 4¾ hr
Pasteurization Time for Fatty Fish
(starting at 41°F / 5°C and put in a 131–140°F / 55–60°C water bath)
55°C 56°C 57°C 58°C 59°C 60°C
Thickness 131°F 133°F 134.5°F 136.5°F 138°F 140°F
5 mm 4¼ hr 3 hr 2 hr 1½ hr 60 min 40 min
10 mm 4¼ hr 3 hr 2 hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 50 min
15 mm 4½ hr 3¼ hr 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1¼ hr 60 min
20 mm 4¾ hr 3½ hr 2½ hr 2 hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr
25 mm 5 hr 3¾ hr 2¾ hr 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr
30 mm 5¼ hr 4 hr 3¼ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr
35 mm 5½ hr 4¼ hr 3½ hr 3 hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr
40 mm 6 hr 4¾ hr 4 hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2½ hr
45 mm 6½ hr 5¼ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr
50 mm 7 hr 5¾ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3¼ hr
55 mm 7½ hr 6¼ hr 5¼ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr
60 mm 8 hr 6¾ hr 5¾ hr 5¼ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr
65 mm 8½ hr 7¼ hr 6¼ hr 5¾ hr 5¼ hr 4¾ hr
70 mm 9¼ hr 8 hr 7 hr 6¼ hr 5¾ hr 5¼ hr
Table 3.1: Pasteurization times for a one million to one reduction of Listeria in fin-fish. I used D605.59 = 2.88 minutes for lean fish (such as cod) and D605.68 = 5.13 minutes for fatty fish (such as salmon) from Embarek and Huss (1993). For my calculations I used a thermal diffusivity of 0.995×10-7 m2/s, a surface heat transfer coefficient of 95 W/m2-K, and took β = 0.28 (to simulate the heating speed of a 2:3:5 box).
http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html#Chicken_or_Turkey_Breast
Pasteurization Time for Poultry
(starting at 41°F / 5°C and put in a 134.5–149°F / 57–65°C water bath)
134.5°F 136.5°F 138°F 140°F 142°F 143.5°F 145.5°F 147°F 149°F
Thickness 57°C 58°C 59°C 60°C 61°C 62°C 63°C 64°C 65°C
5 mm 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1¼ hr 45 min 35 min 25 min 18 min 15 min 13 min
10 mm 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1¼ hr 55 min 40 min 35 min 30 min 25 min 20 min
15 mm 2½ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 50 min 45 min 40 min 35 min 30 min
20 mm 2¾ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 55 min 50 min 45 min 40 min
25 mm 3 hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 1½ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 60 min 55 min
30 mm 3¼ hr 2¾ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr
35 mm 3¾ hr 3 hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr
40 mm 4 hr 3¼ hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr
45 mm 4½ hr 3¾ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 2 hr
50 mm 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr
55 mm 5¼ hr 4½ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2¾ hr
60 mm 5¾ hr 5 hr 4½ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr
65 mm 6¼ hr 5½ hr 5 hr 4½ hr 4¼ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr
70 mm 7 hr 6 hr 5½ hr 5 hr 4¾ hr 4½ hr 4¼ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr
Table 4.1: Time required for at least a one million to one reduction in Listeria and a ten million to one reduction in Salmonella in poultry starting at 41°F (5°C). I calculated the D- and z-values using linear regression from (O’Bryan et al., 2006): for Salmonella I used D606.45 = 4.68 minutes and for Listeria I used D605.66 = 5.94 minutes. For my calculations I used a thermal diffusivity of 1.08×10-7 m2/s, a surface heat transfer coefficient of 95 W/m2-K, and took β=0.28 (to simulate the heating speed of a 2:3:5 box). For more information on calculating log reductions, see Appendix A.
http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html#Beef
Pasteurization Time for Meat (Beef, Pork, and Lamb)
(starting at 41°F / 5°C and put in a 131–151°F / 55–66°C water bath)
55°C 56°C 57°C 58°C 59°C 60°C
Thickness 131°F 133°F 134.5°F 136.5°F 138°F 140°F
5 mm 2 hr 1¼ hr 60 min 45 min 40 min 30 min
10 mm 2 hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 55 min 45 min 40 min
15 mm 2¼ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 60 min 55 min
20 mm 2½ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr
25 mm 2¾ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr
30 mm 3 hr 2½ hr 2 hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr
35 mm 3¼ hr 2¾ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 2 hr 1¾ hr
40 mm 3½ hr 3 hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr
45 mm 4 hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr
50 mm 4½ hr 3¾ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr
55 mm 5 hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3 hr 3 hr
60 mm 5¼ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr
65 mm 6 hr 5¼ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 4 hr 3¾ hr
70 mm 6½ hr 5¾ hr 5¼ hr 4¾ hr 4¼ hr 4 hr
61°C 62°C 63°C 64°C 65°C 66°C
Thickness 142°F 143.5°F 145.5°F 147°F 149°F 151°F
5 mm 25 min 25 min 18 min 16 min 14 min 13 min
10 mm 35 min 30 min 30 min 25 min 25 min 25 min
15 mm 50 min 45 min 40 min 40 min 35 min 35 min
20 mm 60 min 55 min 55 min 50 min 45 min 45 min
25 mm 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 60 min 55 min 55 min
30 mm 1½ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr
35 mm 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr 1¼ hr 1¼ hr
40 mm 1¾ hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr 1½ hr
45 mm 2¼ hr 2 hr 2 hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr 1¾ hr
50 mm 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2¼ hr 2 hr 2 hr 2 hr
55 mm 2¾ hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2½ hr 2¼ hr 2¼ hr
60 mm 3 hr 3 hr 2¾ hr 2¾ hr 2½ hr 2½ hr
65 mm 3½ hr 3¼ hr 3¼ hr 3 hr 3 hr 2¾ hr
70 mm 3¾ hr 3¾ hr 3½ hr 3¼ hr 3¼ hr 3¼ hr
Table 5.1: Time required to reduce Listeria by at least a million to one, Salmonella by at least three million to one, and E. coli by at least a hundred thousand to one in thawed meat starting at 41°F (5°C). I calculated the D- and z-values using linear regression from O’Bryan et al. (2006), Bolton et al. (2000), and Hansen and Knøchel (1996): for E. coli I use D554.87 = 19.35 min; for Salmonella I use D557.58 = 13.18 min; and for Listeria I use D559.22 = 12.66 min. For my calculations I used a thermal diffusivity of 1.11×10-7 m2/s, a surface heat transfer coefficient of 95 W/m2-K, and took β=0 up to 30 mm and β=0.28 above 30 mm (to simulate the heating speed of a 2:3:5 box). For more information on calculating log reductions, see Appendix A. [Note that if the beef is seasoned using a sauce or marinate which will acidify the beef, then the pasteurizing times may need to be doubled to accommodate the increased thermal tolerance of Listeria (Hansen and Knøchel, 1996).]
There's also a table for Government (I'm assuming US Government) pasturisation times:
http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html#Government_Pasteurization_Tables
As well as a list of sources:
http://www.douglasbaldwin.com/sous-vide.html#Bibliography
